The Origin of the Modern Calendar in Ancient Egypt

The Origin of the Modern Calendar in Ancient Egypt The way in which we divide the day into hours and minutes, as well as the structure and length of the yearly calendar, owes much to pioneering developments in ancient Egypt. Since Egyptian life and agriculture depended upon the annual flooding of the Nile, it was important to determine when such floods would begin. The early Egyptians noted that the beginning of akhet (inundation) occurred at the heliacal rising of a star they called Serpet (Sirius). It has been calculated that this sidereal year was only 12 minutes longer than the mean tropical year which influenced the flooding, and this produced a difference of only 25 days over the whole of Ancient Egypts recorded history. 3 Egyptian Calendars Ancient Egypt was run according to three different calendars. The first was a lunar calendar based on 12 lunar months, each of which began on the first day in which the old moon crescent was no longer visible in the East at dawn. (This is most unusual since other civilizations of that era are known to have started months with the first setting of the new crescent!) A thirteenth month was intercalated to maintain a link to the heliacal rising of Serpet. This calendar was used for religious festivals. The second calendar, used for administrative purposes, was based on the observation that there was usually 365 days between the heliacal rising of Serpet. This civil calendar was split into twelve months of 30 days with an additional five epagomenal days attached at the end of the year. These additional five days were considered to be unlucky. Although there is no firm archaeological evidence, a detailed back calculation suggests that the Egyptian civil calendar dates back to circa 2900 BCE. This 365-day calendar is also known as a wandering calendar, from the Latin name annus vagus since it slowly gets out of synchronization with the solar year. (Other wandering calendars include the Islamic year.) A third calendar, which dates back at least to the 4th century BCE was used to match the lunar cycle to the civil year. It was based on a period of 25 civil years which was approximately equal 309 lunar months. The Leap Year in Ancient Egypt An attempt to reform the calendar to include a leap year was made at the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty (Decree of Canopus, 239 BCE), but the priesthood was too conservative to allow such a change. This pre-dates the Julian reform of 46 BCE which Julius Caesar introduced on the advice of the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigenese. Reform did, however, come after the defeat of Cleopatra and Anthony by the Roman General (and soon to be Emperor) Augustus in 31 BCE. In the following year, the Roman senate decreed that the Egyptian calendar should include a leap year, although the actual change to the calendar didnt occur until 23 BCE. Months, Weeks, and Decades The months of the Egyptian civil calendar were further divided into three sections called decades, each of 10 days. The Egyptians noted that the heliacal rising of certain stars, such as Sirius and Orion, matched the first day of the 36 successive decades and called these stars decans. During any one night, a sequence of 12 decans would be seen to rise and was used to count the hours. (This division of the night sky, later adjusted to account for the epagomenal days, had close parallels to the Babylonian zodiac. The signs of the zodiac each accounting for three of the decans. This astrological device was exported to India and then to Medieval Europe via Islam.) Egyptian Clock Time Early man divided the day into temporal hours whose length depended upon the time of year. A summer hour, with the longer period of daylight, would be longer than that of a winter day. It was the Egyptians who first divided the day (and night) into 24 temporal hours. The Egyptians measured time during the day using shadow clocks, precursors to the more recognizable sun dials seen today. Records suggest that early shadow clocks were based on the shadow from a bar crossing four marks, representing hourly periods starting two hours into the day. At midday, when the sun was at its highest, the shadow clock would be reversed and hours counted down to dusk. An improved version using a rod (or gnomon) and which indicates the time according to the length and position of the shadow has survived from the second millennia BCE. Problems with observing the sun and stars may have been the reason the Egyptians invented the water clock, or clepsydra (meaning water thief in Greek). The earliest remaining example survives from the Temple of Karnak is dated to the 15th century BCE. Water drips through a small hole in one container to a lower one. Marks on either container can be used to give a record of hours passed. Some Egyptian clepsydras have several sets of marks to be used at different times of the year, to maintain consistency with the seasonal temporal hours. The design of the clepsydra was later adapted and improved by the Greeks. The Influence of Astronomy on Minutes and Hours As a result of the campaigns of Alexander the Great, a great wealth of knowledge of astronomy was exported from Babylon into India, Persia, the Mediterranean, and Egypt. The great city of Alexandria with its impressive Library, both founded by the Greek-Macedonian family of Ptolemy, served as an academic center. Temporal hours were of little use to astronomers, and around 127 CE Hipparchus of Nicea, working in the great city of Alexandria, proposed dividing the day into 24 equinoctial hours. These equinoctial hours, so called because they are based on the equal length of day and night at the equinox, split the day into equal periods. (Despite his conceptual advance, ordinary people continued to use temporal hours for well over a thousand years: the conversion to equinoctial hours in Europe was made when mechanical, weight driven clocks were developed in the 14th century.) The division of time was further refined by another Alexandrian based philosopher, Claudius Ptolemeus, who divided the equinoctial hour into 60 minutes, inspired by the scale of measurement used in ancient Babylon. Claudius Ptolemaeus also compiled a great catalog of over one thousand stars, in 48 constellations and recorded his concept that the universe revolved around the Earth. Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, it was translated into Arabic (in 827 CE) and later into Latin (in the 12th century CE). These star tables provided the astronomical data used by Gregory XIII for his reform of the Julian calendar in 1582. Sources Richards, EG. Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History. Oxford University Press, 1998.General History of Africa II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa. James Curry Ltd., University of California Press, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 1990.

METHODOLOGY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

METHODOLOGY - Essay Example Research Design A research design is critical in establishing the outlay upon which data analysis will occur. A research design aids in achievement of the research objectives through a purposeful articulation of the overall theme of the research (Katherine, 1998, p.2). In addition, the research design helps in explaining the reason for which a particular kind of data is necessary for the research (Kiecolt & & Nathan, 1985, p.6). The design helps in showing the intended use of the data in a way that seeks to attain the research objectives. The research design for this research seeks to marry the objectives of research with the practical possibilities that are achievable from our chosen method of data collection. This research makes use of both quantitative and qualitative secondary data to unravel elements in the data that reveal information consistent with our research aims. By a combination of authentic secondary data sources, our methodology will help use comprehensively fulfill th e intended research objectives. ... the secondary data used in this research are government records, industry data sources, non-governmental organizations, research institutions, journal publications, books, annual reports, magazines, and company data. Specifically, the research uses data touching on various aspects of shareholder rights in UK, US and China. Some of the data discussing shareholder issues include books on corporate governance discussing companies, and other sources exploring the place of shareholders. Information needed Secondary sources help in identifying related areas of research, which require further inquiry. In addition, secondary data sources outlining the legal frameworks upon which shareholders base their actions undergo careful analysis regard to each of the three countries under study. For the achievement of this purpose, sources of data from professional corporate regulatory bodies such as the ICSA and GAAP form a constituent part of the research framework. With the use of such sources of da ta, we can comprehend the legal groundwork on which shareholders can operate. In consideration of the research objective, which emphasizes the use of real life cases from companies from each of the three countries, three companies, one from each country goes under scrutiny for this analysis. The case studies help us to gain a more intimate understanding of shareholder behavior, and legal realities the shareholders face for each of the three countries. In particular, secondary data from three companies aid in achievement of this objective: Balfour Beatty Plc. of UK, KBR of the US, and CNOOC limited from China. For the research to display a more encompassing perspective on the issues under consideration, the research also enlists the use of company data and annual reports to identify details

Synesthesia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Synesthesia - Essay Example Then, in 1704, a parallel was noticed between a musical scale’s notes and the colors of a spectrum by Isaac Newton, and Leibniz recounted the case of another blind man who understood scarlet by a trumpet’s sound. In 1710, another case of a blind man who had experiences of colored visions by responding to sounds was reported by an English ophthalmologist, Thomas Woolhouse. Castel noticed the same relationship as Newton in 1735 and built, presumably, the first color organ in the world. George Sachs developed the first medical platform for scientific reports on synesthesia in 1812, where he described his own experience with the condition in his PhD dissertation, and it was also the topic’s most approved account (Ward, 2008). He gave a report about his colored vowels, essentially about his albinism, and a depiction of colored hearing even though the significance was only retrospectively apparent (Duffy, 2001). In 1871, Gustav Fechner, who gave rise to the field of ps ychophysics, reported the first empirical study of the photisms of colored letters. By that time, however, there was still negligible interest in the subject, until Charles Darwin’s cousin, Sir Francis Galton, reported on people suffering from the condition and the attention grew considerably in the 1880s, especially in the scientific community. Researchers from the US, Germany, France and England carried out vigorous investigations on the topic, and this led the term synesthesia to be introduced by the American Scientist Mary Calkins. These early studies corresponded with psychology’s dawn in the field of science. It is believed that the pioneering international academic conference was held in March 1927 to objectively discuss synesthesia, presided over by George Anschutz in Hamburg, Germany. The second conference, also in Hamburg, was conducted in October 1930. The third was in October 1933 and the fourth, and last, in October 1936 (Hochel & Milan, 2008).

Walmart Comparitive Strategy Essay Example for Free

Walmart Comparitive Strategy Essay This paper looks at Wal-Mart Stores as the subject of study. This large United States based organization is recognized as the world’s leading retailer and has extensive global operational influence. Wal-Mart has been the object of much research, both by economists, trade organizations and scholars. This company has evolved from very humble beginnings to establishing itself as an ‘economic power’ in its own right. Wal-Mart opened its first store in 1962, in Rogers, Arkansas, based on its founder, Sam Waltons experience in the retailing sector during the 1950s, and a study he conducted prior to opening his first store. In 1972, the Wal-Mart stock was offered on the New York Stock Exchange which led to significant capitalization and growth. During the 1980s, Wal-Mart experienced rapid growth opening Sam’s Club members-warehouse stores and later Supercentres. A recent corporate press release sums up its current status, Today, 10,185 stores and club locations in 27 countries employ 2.2 million associates, serving more than 176 million customers a year† (Wal-Mart Corporate, 2012, p. 1). Understanding the Wal-Mart business model Wal-Mart’s position as the world’s No. 1 retailer inevitably invites strong competition worldwide. This in turn has strengthened this organization’s resolve to maintain their position by utilizing multiple strategies in order to maintain competitive advantage. One of their strategies has incorporated the ability to form relationships or partnerships not only in the United States, but also within the international environment. In order to implement its overseas representation, Wal-Mart has embarked on an expansion program, seeking to maintain both growth and profitability. Its primary methodology in securing partnerships with large overseas retail operations has been primarily by the acquisition of majority shareholdings. Much research has been conducted regarding the viability of acquisition and potential problems inherent within this corporate growth strategy. Effort is directed within this study to ascertain the long term viability of Wal-Mart’s implementation of modern economic principles. This analysis is conducted regarding opinions derived from researched sources either favoring the implementation of trade and comparative advantage utilizing the acquisition mechanism or perhaps the employment of less opportunistic methods. Moreover, the issue of costs and profit maximization will be evaluated relating to the Wal-Mart model in order to establish strategies that can be utilized in order to achieve optimal efficiency. However, there are conflicting viewpoints regarding the best methodology needed to enable such efficiency. Finally, attention is directed at the consumers’ choice, and how it is directed and influenced by strategies implemented within the Wal-Mart corporate business mod el. Competing viewpoints In evaluating trade and comparative advantage via the acquisition trail, Hayward (2002) suggests that multinationals tend to invest in overseas start-ups rather than acquiring existing overseas operations. His argument is based on the premise that for an organization’s planned entry into a foreign market, expertise derived from a multinational’s existing operational and marketing experience is more relevant to overseas market entry than the benefits derived from acquisition. However, he concedes that expansion by acquisition can be enabled by investing in existing overseas operations which have a similar corporate product and management function, or by acquiring a more diverse though related business model, which will allow for market changes to be factored into any risk analysis. Hayward and other sources are accessed, so as to provide a balanced viewpoint of an organization such as Wal-Mart; regarding its choice of acquisition strategy and its effectiveness in achievi ng growth and profitability. Costs and profit maximization is also looked at by enabling research into previously conducted studies. Wal-Mart has exploited costs and profit strategies by utilizing and capitalizing on its ability to offer products at rock bottom prices due to its enormous buying power and also committing suppliers worldwide contractually to price and cost control agreements. This has enabled this organization to take advantage of the economic environment in the U.S. and elsewhere within countries in which it has operations. This advantage leverages its buying power, allowing it to offer the ‘best deal’ by focusing on product costs and potential higher volume of sales; thereby maximizing its ability to impact global retail markets. Jones and Hill (1988, p. 160) maintain that a transaction requiring cost can be more effectively enabled if facilitated within the organization’s corporate infrastructure or â€Å"internalizing†, rather than by enabling such transactions within the marketplace. This paper looks at how Wal-Mart internalized its ability to control costs by facilitating a diversity of acquisitions within overseas markets. Apposing Jones and Hill’s (1988) findings, Denis, Denis and Sarin (1997, p. 135) point to studies which suggest that the â€Å"cost of diversification outweigh the benefits†. This paper seeks to establish more definitively the viability of costs and profit maximization via the acquisition methodology within the Wal-Mart corporate business model. Further attention will also be directed at ‘consumer choice’ and how it is impacted by costs and profit strategies incorporated within Wal-Mart’s operational function. Key to this organization’s diversification strategy has been its ability to supply and meet consumer expectations worldwide. According to research conducted in 1985, it was noted that consumers’ choice was driven by three variable buying habits (Quigley, 1985). Firstly, the consumer tends to select one choice when looking at a product even when offered many alternatives. Secondly, products on offer to the consumer are endowed with a large range of options and variety. Finally, the issue of price is a consideration that needs to be factored into the consumers’ expectations. Countering Quigley (1985), another source points to evidence suggesting that consumer participation is achieved not only by ‘price information’, but also by providing â€Å"non-price information† (Degeratu, Rangaswamy Wu, 1999, p. 8). Here their hypothesis maintains that allowing the consumer too much choice can compromise the consumer’s long term participation as a loyal customer. This tends to counter Quigley’s point of view, from which in part he suggests that the consumer is motivated by a ‘large range’ or variety of choice. Furthermore, Degeratu et al. (1999) argues that establishing consumers’ personal preferences enable choice to be restricted and issues such as price to be focused on specific product choices. This in turn allows the ability to negate competitors’ influence by diverting the consumers’ attention from a wide choice to a product personalized to include aspects such as price and brand. One of Wal -Mart’s key marketing strategies is to attract the consumer by the offering of ‘rock-bottom’ priced consumables. This paper endeavors to establish what really drives and captures consumer choice, with further attention allocated to further research sources in order to establish why Wal-Mart focus so much marketing attention on product price . Anticipated Evidence This study acknowledges that evidence from research offers numerous validated opinions related to the abovementioned trade and comparative advantage, costs and profit maximization and consumer choice. Based on evidence obtained relating to Wal-Mart’s growth and profitability, effort will be focused on accessing credible information from further sources that validates this organization’s decision to implement acquisition strategies that are both strategically sound and beneficial to both the supplier and consumer alike. Moreover, attention will be directed towards obtaining information and data that promotes Wal-Mart’s costs and profit maximization via strategies including the combining and internalizing of available resources. Customer choice will be further investigated so as to establish how this organization was enabled to achieve marketplace leadership by focusing on primarily on consumers’ expectations of price, whilst factoring in important considerations relating to brand and quality. While directing effort into the sourcing process, recognition will be given to the diversity of sources available, with viewpoints garnered from those sources perhaps not directly connected with economics or the retail industry. Additional Information Due to the significance of Wal-Mart’s dominant position within the international retail industry, consideration will be directed at additional factors that may be relevant to its growth and profitability. One factor that perhaps deserves some further researched evidence relates to overall management of costs, not only directly related to products (for resale), but also concerning the cost control of issues such as money transfer, exchange rate mechanisms and entry into overseas markets that is exposed to risks presented by cultural diversity and local traditions. Accessing these and other (perhaps secondary factors), may indeed shed light on this paper’s primary objective which is to establish how trade and comparative advantage, costs and profit maximization and customer choice impact and influence Wal-Mart, based on the variety of information and opinion sourced. Discussion Overview: Three Economic Strategies. Attention is now directed to ascertaining the importance of establishing factors that influence the economic viability of the Wal-Mart business model; whilst acknowledging its consistent historical growth pattern enabling it to become the world’s leading retailer. As briefly mentioned earlier, this study looked at various factors contributing to its critical competitive advantages, leveraged in part by its ability to set up overseas operations by investing in acquisitions. Utilizing the acquisition methodology of growth has raised concerns by previous research regarding if acquisition is the preferred or most efficient way to facilitate growth objectives on an international scale. Moreover, mentioned was allocated earlier to Hayward’s (2002) claim, in which a multinational’s accumulated operational and marketing track record is more influential to successful overseas entry than by enabling the acquisition of another business operation. Further attention will be given later in this study regarding the viability of international growth via acquisition. This study has also verified the implementation of ‘costs and profit maximization’ by the Wal-Mart management structure; thereby allowing this organization to utilize growing financial resources in order to maintain its dominant position within the international retail marketplace. Such dominance was facilitated in part by leveraging its enormous organizational buying power on a global basis in order to extract the lowest product cost from suppliers; thereby increasing the possibility of a higher profit margin. In turn, creating the lowest possible cost retail product range for resale purposes, has allowed effort to be directed to ‘consumer choice’, as without the vital component of consumer participation, no business can enjoy financial longevity or long term sustainability. Perhaps it is important to understand that within the law of economics, comparative advantage is enabled by one competitor retaining the ability to produce a product and service at a lower cost than other competitors; thereby creating an ‘inequality’ of competitiveness. It may be argued that comparative advantage can be further exploited by acquiring competitors rather than engaging in an environment of conflict. This raises the question whether the investment needed to effect acquisition is more financially viable than by directing financial resources to combating potential competitors. Another consideration propagating the argument towards favoring an acquisition suggests that this corporate strategy enables the utilization of resources from a base of existing suppliers and consumers; whereas starting from scratch in an overseas marketplace requires significant resources being allocated to catching up to existing retailers’ marketplace penetration. Strategy based on the latter option may result not only in ‘over-investment’ or excessive capital expenditure, but also necessitating additional time to be allocated to effecting a market entry strategy. As has already been noted, previous research has varying viewpoints regarding which route is more financially effective and sustainable. Therefore, the thesis of this study will be to establish that acquisition, effective costs and profit maximization and targeted consumer choice are invariably linked and are perhaps the most effective economic way to enable growth and profitability, especially pertaining to a large corporate infrastructure such as Wal-Mart. This idea will be demonstrated utilizing the Wal-Mart operational business model, both from a historical point of view and also from its current operational function. Implementation Viability: Three Economic Strategies. As previously noted, this U.S. organization has exploited these three strategies by utilizing the existing infrastructure, consumer base, experience and local knowledge of the acquired company. This has been achieved whilst capitalizing on its own ability to introduce sophisticated management and operating systems, derived and developed both in the U.S. and via a number of worldwide partnerships enabling the procurement of products at rock-bottom prices. In addition, significant investment into hardware and software technology has enabled this organization access accurate data and information quickly and efficiently. Perhaps one of its greatest business strategies in developing comparative advantages was the planned penetration of overseas markets, which may not have been so exposed to such a high level of expertise as their Western counterparts. This expertise has been derived from exposure to the ongoing development of business systems and comprehensive utilization of human resources. Their expertise also incorporated a company and management culture that encouraged the promotion of talent, including enabling the availability of both in-house and external based training. Furthermore, another strategic development facilitating their competitive advantage was the penetration of the Asian marketplace, an area of the world which had not been impacted so severely as in Western markets since the onset of the global economic recession in 2008. Furthermore, due to Asia’s lesser exposure to debt and systemically faulted credit mechanisms, Wal-Mart was able to exploit its penetration of Asian markets due to a higher consumer demand; thereby leveraging their enormous internal buying power by trading with economies such as China and India, in order to facilitate growth and profitability. Overall its penetration of international markets has enjoyed remarkable success and is endowed with multiple opportunities. This fact is verified by a recent analysis of the Wal-Mart business model, â€Å"Over time, the international segment probably has the greatest opportunity to improve sales and operating margin† (Forbes.com, 2012, p. 1). Their strategy of sourcing cheap products by utilizing their enormous purchasing power has enabled this organization to pass on the benefits directly to the consumer, thus facilitating their ability as a leading international retail competitor to compete effectively against more established overseas retail chains. Therefore, due to a severe competitive environment in the United States, Wal-Mart will no doubt continue to take advantage of overseas markets, which may allow it to further utilize their sophisticated management and monetary control systems within an easier and less competitive operating environment. To date, this organization has implemented this advantage by employing a corporate culture incorporating in part, international expansion and penetration by means of acquisition. Furthermore, Wal-Mart further developed their advantage over competitors by employing sophisticated exchange control mechanisms that reduced their risk exposure to fluctuations of foreign currency. Th ey achieved this in part, by pricing their revenues and costs utilizing a strategy of securing a fixed or more stable exchange rate on which to base their costings and revenue forecasts. Whilst acknowledging their obvious success which was enabled in part by their strategic management planning gaining access into global markets, further study from previous research is now directed to the critical evaluation of alternative overseas market penetration strategies. In addition, focus into the feasibility and effectiveness of costs reduction and profit optimization is also included within this investigation. Inevitably this study will also factor in the enhanced ability of the consumer to enjoy options that allow both choice of product, and increased purchasing power due to rock-bottom product pricing. According to a study conducted into organizational fit and acquisition performance, it is argued that acquisitions are known to â€Å"have a high failure rate—nearly half of all acquisitions are rated as being unsatisfactory by managers of acquiring firms† (Datta, 1991, p. 281). It is also surprising to note that companies and organizations targeted by acquiring companies have an above average chance (over 50%) of experiencing a fall in profitability. According to Datta (1991), challenges posed by the corporate targets of acquisition include implementing and combining the operational functions of both the acquirer and the acquired. This is indeed challenging in overseas markets where cultural differences and corporate practices are perhaps significantly diverse in nature. However, balanced against this argument, Datta (1991) did not constructively conclude that the same profit related challenges are faced by acquiring companies. It can possibly be inferred from Datta’s (1991) study that the benefit of acquisition may be more weighted in favor of the company conducting an acquisition. Assuming that this company assumes a majority control over the acquired company’s infrastructure and operational function including an existing consumer base and marketplace penetration, further suggests that the trade and comparative advantage lies with an incoming organization such as Wal-Mart. Supporting this thesis in part, Dussauge, Garrette Mitchell (2000, p. 100) claim â€Å"that no one business can create all resources needed to prosper and grow†, however they continue to maintain that â€Å"collaboration† (p. 100) between competing companies allows each company to possess and leverage â€Å"complementary resources† (p. 100); thereby enabling the exploitation by both participating companies of opportunities within the marketplace. Dussauge et al. (2000, p. 100) further adds that such collaboration facilitates the ability to ensure â€Å"survival and growth†. However, this paper cautions that based on Datta’s (1991) research, such exploitation may be more beneficial to the incoming acquiring company. Attention is now focused on the economic aspects regarding the maximization of profits and minimizing costs. Wal-Marts exposure to exchange risk is significant due to capital investment into overseas markets from which it is assumed that subsequent returns of investment (ROI) will in part be transferred back to the United States. Furthermore, issues such as incurring debt and ongoing initial overseas expenditure including legal costs are also budgeted necessities that require the enactment of currency control mechanisms. Also assuming the implementation of a larger and more diverse product range made available within the newly acquired overseas marketplace, accumulating procurement expenditure for resale products from overseas suppliers and business ‘partners’ will be to be factored into the ‘costs analysis’. To reduce its risk exposure to fluctuations of foreign currency, Wal-Mart has priced their revenues and costs by securing a fixed or more stable exchange rate on which to base their costings and revenue forecasts. The methodology employed to reduce exchange rate risks was by utilizing interest rate swaps; as a report studying Cash flow instruments points out, â€Å"The Company [Wal-Mart] was party to a cross-currency interest rate swap to hedge the foreign   currency risk of certain foreign-denominated debt. The swap was designated as a cash flow hedge of foreign currency exchange risk† (Wikinvest 2008, p. 1). This factor incorporating the leveraging of exchange rate mechanisms has continually facilitated maximized profitability and minimized costs. However, on a cautionary note, exchange rate mechanisms are by no means guaranteed to remove potential exchange rate losses, but can be seen to perhaps ‘dilute’ or lower the risk of foreign currency and exchange rate losses. Furthermore, due to Wal-Mart’s enormous purchasing power and ability to source the lowest priced products and services from cheaper overseas suppliers, minimal costs are achieved whilst also subsequently allowing the maximization of profits to be realized. Moreover, the benefits attributed by optimizing costs and profits, facilitates passing on to the consumer, both choice and low prices. However, revenue based on price and choice is not necessarily conducive and conclusive to enabling long term consumer loyalty. This was noted earlier in a study conducted by Degeratu et al. (1999), in which they argue that giving a consumer too much choice creates an environment in which competitors can compete on a level footing, whereas by personalizing the marketing away from price and a wider choice negates in part the threat from competitors. Conclusion Based on the aforementioned sourced evidence, this study suggests that enabling trade and comparative advantage is indeed viable by implementing expansion and growth via a strategy of acquisition. Despite evidence some pointing to the high failure rate of acquisitions and the possibility of achieving growth by internalizing expansion, such evidence does not disprove that the proven success already demonstrated by corporate organizations such as Wal-  Mart, cannot be continued to be planned and implemented. Perhaps the primary factor allowing this positive viewpoint of acquisition is regarding the significant time needed to build and develop market share in a new overseas market. According to Singh and Montgomery (1987, p. 378), internal development into a new market can take up to eight years in which to achieve â€Å"accrual of returns†. Further supporting acquisition, Singh and Montgomery (1987, p. 379). maintain that such markets may be â€Å"characterized by substantial barriers to entry†, further justifying Wal-Mart’s strategy of comparative advantage by acquisition. Accepting the relative initial high investment of acquisition, as compared to that of internalized growth, creating mechanisms to allow costs efficiency is of vital necessity in order to create positive cash flow and sustainable growth. These findings have showed that the combination of ‘purchasing power’ and mechanisms lowering the risk of exchange rate losses, have in part led to the success of one of the world’s largest companies. Additionally, acquiring existing overseas operational structures provides a company such as Wal-Mart the opportunity to offer the consumer the ‘best deal’ due to the collaboration, ‘expertise’ and infrastructure of two related corporate entities. However, this study would be remiss by not cautioning against the possibility of future areas of conflict between corporate collaborators, in the event of inequality of opportunity between collaborators as highlighted earlier in this paper by Dassa, (1991, p. 13).

Ethical Issues in Social Work Essay example -- Papers

Ethical Issues in Social Work I will provide practical help for new social workers to help them understand and deal with ethical issues and dilemmas which they will face. There are many ethical issues which are important to social work, but I feel that these are all covered by the care value base. The care value base Was devised by the care sector consortium in 1992, this was so that the workers in health and social care had a common set of values and principles which they would all adhere to. It is important because for the first time the social care sector had a clear set of guidelines from which ethical judgements could be made. The care value base is divided into 5 elements - The care value base covers - Equality and Diversity - Rights and responsibilities - Confidentiality - Promoting anti Discrimination - Effective communication Equality and Diversity Carers must value diversity themselves before they can effectively care for the different races, religions and differently abled people they will come across in their caring profession. Diversity is where there are many different kinds of people living in a community together. This means that in a set environment there will be black, Asian, gay, straight, differently abled people living together in a community. Discriminatory prejustice must be able to be recognised by the carer, for example, if a woman is being discriminated against in a care home, or treated differently in a hospital setting, the carer must be able to recognise that this behaviour is happening, and inform a higher power, or go through the complaints procedu... ...es. The ethical issues surrounding this Act is who’s rights are more important, the right of the parent to have their child with them, or the right of the child to live happily and without fear of abuse. This also applies to schools The Data Protection Act of 1998 means that service users have a right to keep private information confidential, but it also means that they have a responsibly in relation to the rights of other service users. The confidentiality must be kept within certain borderlines, and can be broken when other service user’s rights come into conflict. Certain information may need to be passed to a senior member of staff when there is someone in danger. This relates to ethical issues as it is difficult to decide when confidential information should be shared, as described in my ethical dilemma above.

Physical Education: Synoptics : David Beckham Essay

David Beckham has been playing football since a very early age. He now plays for Manchester United at an elite level and captains England. He trains and competes very regularly. 1.AGGRESSION Several aspects of football have progressed vastly in the last decade. Many of which are relevant to the increasing position of aggression in football today. This means that aggression is very much a part of David’s sport, and an aspect that he must understand. Governing bodies and referees are now much more open and understanding about aggression in football as they have realised the increasing influence that it has in the game. The rules reflect this, as retaliation (an aggressive act) is now an automatic ‘sending off’ offence. This also applies to raising of the hands and any intent to harm. Rivalry between teams is also an issue. When playing a local rival obtaining points is not the players’ only motive for success. The two teams aim to win as simply defeating the opposition matters more than obtaining points. However this may lead to aggressive behaviour as the player feels that the stakes are higher (pride). It is also possible and supported through theory that in games in which he feels he is under-achieving he finds himself being cautioned. This may be due to the theory that states the athletes’ ability is inadequate compared to the task they are given. This then causes them to act in an aggressive rather than assertive manner.

The Last Samurai Hollywood and Orientalism - 2947 Words

Hollywood and Orientalism have traditionally had an inter-twined relationship that continues to persist even today. Orientalism can be described in three different ways. Firstly, as Edward Said illustrates in his great work â€Å"Orientalism† illustrates, â€Å"it is academic in nature; composed by people who write, teach, and research on the â€Å"orient.† (Said, 1978, 4) Secondly, â€Å"Orientalism is also a style of thought based on an ontological and epistemological distinction between â€Å"Orient† and more often than not the â€Å"Occident† (Said, 1978, 5). In other words, Orientalism creates, through the binary opposition between the East and West, a means for dealing and understanding the Orient, and western self-understanding through opposing itself against the â€Å"Other.† (Said, 1978, 5) Orientalism is used when describing European-American views on the region of Asia, and has often led to western Eurocentric views proclaiming their do minance over East Asia through an uneven exchange of power. In short, Orientalism as a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient (Said, 1978, 5) Additionally, it has created a regular pattern for the idea of European Western having political, intellectual, and hegemony over Asia. The Hollywood film industry has particularly been a fertile ground for Orientalism. In the late nineteenth and twentieth century western narrative and cinemas inherited and narrated visual traditions, as well as the cultural assumption, on whichShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagestwentieth century. And the reunification of Germany and the reemergence of international terrorism, which were powerfully symptomatic of the unprecedented reach and intensity of the processes of globalization on either side of the otherwise unremarkable last and first years of the old and new millennia, represented both a return to trends reminiscent of the opening decades of the twentieth century and a major break from the prevailing dynamics of the cold war. In addition to the problems posed for conceptualizing